Persian art, also referred to as Iranian art, is an art form made up of many mediums that include painting, pottery, sculpture, metalworking, calligraphy, weaving, and architecture. As the historic region of Persia developed, the art movement received multiple influences from neighboring countries, which dictated the style seen in the artworks created. With the earliest influence dating back to approximately 550 BCE, Persian art exists as one of the richest art heritages in the world.
A History of Persian Art
In modern-day Iran, Persia established a vast empire in the 6th century BCE, stretching from the Indus Valley to Northern Greece and from Central Asia to Egypt. The Persian art era is often associated with the Achaemenid Empire, which lasted from 550 to 330 BCE. This era marked one of the longest and most influential periods in art history.
Persian art drew early inspiration from older civilizations like Mesopotamia, which shaped its rich cultural heritage. Under Emperor Cyrus the Great, Persia expanded its influence across Asia Minor and Central Asia, laying the foundation for its artistic legacy.
A map of Persia by Jansson, Amsterdam c. 1640
Persia, one of the world’s oldest countries, fostered early cultures that experimented with artmaking. Early Persian artworks included detailed ceramics and small bronze objects that reflected artistic influences from neighboring regions. Persian art evolved by blending native traditions with elements from Sumerian, Greek, and Chinese art.
Chinese influence, particularly, left a mark on Persian miniatures—small, intricate paintings on paper. These works served as book illustrations or standalone art pieces, often compiled into albums known as muraqqa. Persian miniatures remain some of the most celebrated artworks from this period.
The term “Persia” originated from the region of “Persis” or “Parsa” in southern Iran, named after an Indo-European nomadic group that settled there around 1000 BCE. However, in 1935, Iran’s government requested that countries refer to the nation by its Persian name, Iran. Consequently, “Persian art” and “Iranian art” are often used interchangeably to describe the same artistic tradition.
Persian art is characterized by a fusion of native traditions and external influences, including Mesopotamian, Egyptian, Greek, and Roman art. New cultures introduced their styles, but Persia adapted these elements uniquely, creating distinctive artworks.
Ancient Persian art often emphasized human figures, especially royalty, as seen in monumental sculptures. Animals also played a significant role, symbolizing power and spirituality in Persian culture.
A gilded silver Sassanid bowl showing a king hunting (c. 7th century AD), displayed at the Museum of Islamic Art in Berlin.
With the fall of the First Persian Empire, Islam emerged as the dominant religion in Persia. Over time, Islamic art styles began to shape Persian art, significantly influencing sculptures and other creative works. Artists shifted their focus to smaller representations of animals, often surrounded by plants. These were elegantly combined with Chinese motifs, resulting in a graceful and harmonious artistic style.
Sadly, much of the Persian art created during ancient times has not survived the millennia. The remnants of Persian architecture today include broken palaces and rock-cut tombs. Iconic Persian sculptures have been preserved in column capitals, wall reliefs, and intricate metalworks.
The greatest loss, however, is the absence of ancient Persian paintings. Despite their once-prominent role in Persian art, no examples of these works have endured.
Early Persian Art
Persian art evolved over three significant phases of the region’s history. These phases included two major empires: the First Persian Empire (Achaemenid Empire) and the Second Persian Empire (Sassanid Empire). The Parthian Era acted as a transitional phase between these two civilizations.
Before the Achaemenid Era, Persian culture was in its early stages. With the rise of each empire, Persian art absorbed new cultural and artistic influences. After the Sassanid Era, Persia became part of the Islamic world. This shift introduced distinct Islamic elements into Persian art, marking a new chapter in its development.
Achaemenid Era (c. 550 – 330 BCE)
Founded by Cyrus the Great, the Achaemenid Empire existed between 550 and 330 BCE. It drew inspiration from Greek and Egyptian art, focusing on improving past models. Architecture became the dominant art form, exemplified by monumental palace complexes in Persepolis and Susa. These palaces featured intricate sculptures and elaborate stone bas-reliefs.
A notable example is the Archers frieze of Susa, an enameled brick decoration from Darius I’s royal palace. This piece, now displayed at the Louvre Museum in France, highlights the sophistication of Achaemenid stonework.
Archers frieze from Darius’ palace at Susa, ca. 510 BC; Louvre Museum
Persepolis boasted remarkable sculptures, including large bulls with human heads that flanked the city gates. Darius I also commissioned a massive relief sculpture carved into rock. This work depicted him conquering enemies under the watchful eyes of the gods, showcasing Greek artistic influence on Persian sculptures.
The Achaemenid Empire produced intricate jewelry crafted from gold and gemstones. These pieces, along with silver and gold swords and drinking horns, demonstrated the exceptional craftsmanship of the time.
Parthian Era (c. 247 BCE – 224 CE)
After Alexander the Great conquered the Achaemenid Empire in 330 BCE, Persian art transitioned into the Parthian Era. This phase, spanning from 247 BCE to 224 CE, bridged the First and Second Persian Empires. Initially, Greek culture dominated, creating a blend of Greek and Iranian motifs in art.
With Alexander’s death, the Parthians fully influenced Persian art, revitalizing its development. As semi-nomadic people, they reflected diverse regional styles in their art. Despite this variety, Parthian sculptures and monuments retained foundational elements from the Achaemenid Era.
Parthian Temple of the Gareus, one of the most important temples in the ancient city of Warka, dating back to the Seleucid period
Parthian art emphasized architecture and introduced “frontality” in visual representations. Unlike earlier profiles, figures now faced viewers directly. Influences from Hellenistic and Mesopotamian forms merged with unique Parthian styles, resulting in innovations such as domes that appeared to rise organically from the earth, unlike Roman domes placed atop structures.
This era’s architectural and artistic achievements paved the way for the Sassanid Empire, inspiring some of ancient Persia’s most iconic monuments.
Sassanid Era (c. 226 – 650 CE)
The Sassanid Empire, founded by Ardashir I, succeeded the Parthian Era. Lasting from 226 CE to 650 CE, this period marked a cultural and artistic renaissance for Persia. Ardashir I initiated large-scale building projects, including structures that showcased the era’s hallmark designs—domes and minarets.
Rock relief of the investiture scene of Sasanian king Bahram 1st at Bishapur (said Bishapur V), Iran, province of Fars
Sassanid artists moved away from the frontality of the Parthian Era, returning to profile and three-quarter views typical of the Achaemenid Era. They excelled in decorative arts, such as stone mosaics and gold or silver dishes depicting animals and hunting scenes.
One of the most remarkable Sassanid achievements was the carving of rock sculptures into limestone cliffs, illustrating victories of Sassanid rulers. These bold depictions underscored the empire’s power and artistic sophistication.
Carpet-making and silk-weaving emerged during this era, leading to the creation of Persian carpets that gained international acclaim. These textiles were exported to regions like Istanbul and Turkey, establishing their enduring reputation.
By integrating techniques from previous eras, Sassanid art reached its zenith. It blended ancient Persian traditions with contemporary innovations, creating masterpieces that symbolized the height of Persian culture and artistry.
Persian Architecture
Persian architecture played a crucial role in shaping artistic and structural advancements that still influence designs today. Among the empires that ruled Persia, the Achaemenid Era left behind the richest architectural legacy, evident in the ruins of Persepolis. Built during the First Persian Empire, Persepolis served as the capital and became a model for later empires seeking to replicate its grandeur.
Drawing of Persepolis (1713) by Gérard Jean-Baptiste
One defining characteristic of Persian architecture was the column. While initially inspired by Greek columns, Persian architects added their unique touch. Persian columns were thinner, enhancing their vertical elegance, and featured distinct designs at the top, known as the Persian animal capital. These capitals depicted animal figures emerging from both sides of the column, creating a style distinct from Greek counterparts.
The design of columns evolved between the First and Second Persian Empires. During the Achaemenid Era, columns used a post-and-beam support system, whereas the Sassanid Empire adopted arched supports, a technique inspired by Roman architecture.
Despite borrowing elements from Greek and Roman sculpture, Persian architecture stands out for its cultural originality and influence across different eras. Its innovations, such as the Persian column, reflect the artistic ingenuity that defined Persian art and left a lasting impact on architectural history.
Persian Sculpture
One of the most important artistic developments within Persian art was sculpture. Luckily, numerous Persian sculptures have managed to survive as time has gone on, mostly in the form of the stone reliefs that were carved onto the walls of palaces and on the faces of cliffs. The influences for sculptures varied greatly, with some remaining Persian sculpture pieces demonstrating a strong Mesopotamian influence, while others display strikingly classic European features.
Alabaster statuette of a reclining nude woman from Iraq, Parthian period, 2nd century BCE to 2nd century CE. Pergamon Museum, Berlin, Germany
Persian sculpture oscillated between stylized and realistic aesthetics, heavily influenced by the prevailing cultures of the time. Despite this variation, all Persian sculptures retained a uniquely Persian identity, showcasing a blend of artistic traditions.
In addition to stone carvings, Persian artists excelled in creating metal sculptures. Although few have survived, these works included intricate statuettes, jewelry, and rhytons—elaborate goblets and pitchers often adorned with animal designs. These metal pieces exemplified the skill and creativity of Persian artisans.
Persia Under Islam
Following the fall of the Sassanid Era, Arab forces invaded Persia, incorporating it into the Islamic world. This transformation significantly influenced Persian visual arts, as new Islamic rules altered the artistic landscape. One rule prohibited depicting three-dimensional living forms, which caused an immediate decline in Persian sculpture production.
Artists turned to fine painting as their primary medium, creating flatter and more decorative works influenced by Byzantine styles. While sculpture waned, decorative arts like metalwork, weaving, and ceramics thrived. These artworks adorned Islamic religious sites, including the Mosque of Baghdad (764 CE), the Great Mosque at Samarra (847 CE), and the Imam Reza Shrine in Mashhad (1418).
Mosaics became another widely used decorative element in mosques and other structures. Persian architects also continued crafting colorful roofs using blue, red, and green ceramic tiles, preserving a traditional architectural style despite the changes in governance.
Great Mosque at Samarra with spiral minaret
The Rise of Illumination and Calligraphy
Restrictions on depicting living figures led to a decline in figure drawing and painting. However, Persian artists pioneered Illumination, an art form that adorned manuscripts and religious texts, particularly the Koran.
Iranian illuminators remained active through the late Middle Ages, reaching their zenith during the Safavid Dynasty (1501–1722). Simultaneously, the widespread reproduction of religious texts accelerated the development of ornamental writing, known as calligraphy. Both Illumination and calligraphy became hallmark features of Iranian art.
The Development of Painting
Painting retained its significance in Islamic Persia, with Persian miniature paintings becoming a major art tradition. Kamāl ud-Dīn Behzād emerged as the most notable miniature painter of this era. His vibrant, realistic landscapes, inspired by mountain-scapes and hunting scenes, gained widespread acclaim during the late 15th century.
As the head of the Herat Academy of Painting and Calligraphy, Behzād influenced the development of portrait art, which gained popularity in diverse cultures. However, by the late 1600s, Iranian art traditions weakened as artists began emulating European styles, losing some of their original character.
Destroying the Survivors of Kipchak Corps (before the 1480s) by Kamāl ud-Dīn Behzād
The Emergence of Persian Carpets
Carpet weaving stands as one of the most essential elements of Persian culture and art, deeply rooted in the country’s history. Persian carpets are celebrated for their complexity, rich colors, and intricate designs, which have made them famous worldwide. Although “Persian carpet” typically refers to pile-woven textiles, flat-woven styles such as Kilim and Soumak, along with embroidered textiles like Suzani, are also integral to Persian weaving traditions.
The production of Persian carpets traditionally occurred in diverse settings, including nomadic tribes, villages, urban workshops, and royal courts. Each setting contributed distinct characteristics to the carpets, yet all reflected Iran’s history and cultural identity. Patterns and motifs on these carpets often represented symbolic elements of Persian life, mythology, and art.
Persian family in Tehran (c. 1890-1910)
During the 16th century, the Safavid Dynasty elevated Persian carpet weaving to unprecedented heights. Court manufactories in Isfahan became renowned for their superior craftsmanship, intricate designs, and striking color schemes. These carpets, now housed in prestigious museums around the globe, represent some of the finest examples of Persian art.
The Coronation Carpet, woven in the 17th century and currently preserved in Copenhagen, Denmark, is a prime example of the Safavid era’s artistic excellence. Its elaborate design reflects the Safavid court’s emphasis on aesthetic innovation and precision.
The artistic traditions established during the Safavid period influenced Persian carpet weaving for centuries, continuing into the era of the Qajar Dynasty and beyond. Persian carpets remain iconic symbols of Iranian culture and history, with their unmatched craftsmanship and timeless designs keeping the legacy of Persia alive.
Northwest Persian 18th-century carpet with Harshang or crab design
The Legacy of Ancient Persian Arts
The fall of the Sasanian Empire in 651 CE marked the beginning of Islam’s dominance in Iran during the 7th century CE, which remains the primary religion today. This shift led to the suppression of certain ancient Persian traditions and religions, such as Zoroastrianism. Furthermore, many Persian customs were gradually replaced to solidify an Islamic-Arabian worldview in the evolving Iranian society.
Despite these significant changes, numerous elements of Persian art and architecture endured the upheaval. These influences not only survived but also shaped the development of Islamic-Arabian art and culture. Persian artistry continues to inspire contemporary Iranian creations, preserving the essence of its imperial past.
One notable example of enduring Persian heritage is the weaving of traditional carpets. These carpets, renowned for their intricate designs and vibrant colors, reflect the artistic ingenuity of ancient Persia and remain highly valued worldwide. Additionally, Persian architectural elements, such as domes and decorative tilework, continue to appear in modern structures, highlighting the lasting impact of Persian innovation on Islamic art and design.
The legacy of ancient Persian art demonstrates its resilience and ability to adapt while maintaining a connection to its rich history. Through art forms like carpet weaving and architecture, Persian culture lives on, offering a timeless tribute to its influential past.
Ancient Persian arts have a rich history, as the era has been through many periods of growth and change. Persian art and architecture have continued to maintain a powerful influence on the present-day art world. Most of the traditional artworks made typically celebrate customs of the past through using elements that worked well and improving upon them. Certain artists have even continued to work with the same materials as their ancestors did, with rugs, statues, ceramics, and textiles continuing to be among the most popular art mediums today.